Emerging technologies for the recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) from the end-of-life electronic wastes: a review on progress, challenges, and perspectives

The demand for rare earth elements (REEs) has significantly increased due to their indispensable uses in integrated circuits of modern technology. However, due to the extensive use of high-tech applications in our daily life and the depletion of their primary ores, REE's recovery from secondary sources is today needed. REEs have now attracted attention to policymakers and scientists to develop novel recovery technologies for materials' supply sustainability. This paper summarizes the recent progress for the recovery of REEs using various emerging technologies such as bioleaching, biosorption, cryo-milling, electrochemical processes and nanomaterials, siderophores, hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, and supercritical CO2. The challenges facing this recovery are discussed comprehensively and some possible improvements are presented. This work also highlights the economic and engineering aspects of the recovery of REE from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Finally, this review suggests that greener and low chemical consuming technologies, such as siderophores and electrochemical processes, are promising for the recovery of REEs present in small quantities. These technologies present also a potential for large-scale application.